The European Union As A Military Power Politics Essay

The European Union As A Military Power Politics Essay Matter of security in Europe and security of Europe has always been at stake. According to Hanspeter Neuhold security is the preservation or protection of essential values overtime, now and in the future He stresses that no total security is possible, but rather what matters is an effectiveness of protection of values. Systems established in Europe so far are serving to the aim of effectiveness for now and in the future  [2]  . Yet, varying conceptualization of EU as a power can be met in ongoing discussions among scholars and experts. Besides defining EU as a normative and civilian power, in conceptualization of the EUs role in the international arena certain experts also argue that the EU is a military power.  [3]  For instance Hedley Bull referring to the debate on civilian vs. military power dismissed the idea of civilian power, naming it as a contradiction in terms. He argues that the capabilities of powers in the international system are rather defined by their military resources. His vision of the Community is that to become more self-sufficient in defense and security, among other things, it needs to improve its conventional forces.  [4]  However, others believe that although the military capabilities of the EU are increasing, the role of the EU in the international arena can hardly be identified as a military power. The formulation of norms and objectives of a civilian power are accompanied by cooperation in the military area and a step-by-step strengthening of the military (defense) capabilities o f the EU.  [5]  Yet, whether and to what extent the Union will use its military capacities to defend and promote its civilian and normative objectives need to be discussed in the light of the provision of the respective framework and institutions. This paper attempts to add a point of view in the discussion of the definition EU as a military power. It has an aim to look at the development of the EUs military capabilities and their functional purpose in order to present authors standpoint on the issue at stake. The author believes that in order to define the presence of military power in EU one has to analyze the nature of its military capabilities and their applications. It is also believed that up-to-date conceptualization of the term military power has not been well developed by scholars of the field and hence suggests theoretical vagueness in the definition itself. First section of the paper will look at the origins of formation of the EUs military capabilities in order to define the original nature of the EU military capabilities. Second chapter scrutinizes the political path of development of CFSP in the light of formation of the EUs military forces. Going beyond analysis of historical and political developments, third section of the paper tries to define current features of the EU that largely influence the security and defense policies lead and accordingly the use of military forces by the EU. In the conclusion the author proposes a conditional response to the main questions of the paper is EU a military power? Section I Political path of development of European Defense Policy One of the websites providing the viewpoint of scholars and politicians on the EUs role in the world provided that the Union has been called an emerging superpower by many academics. Scholars and academics like T.R. Reid, Andrew Reding, Mark Leonard, Jeremy Rifkin, John McCormick, and some politicians like Romano Prodi and Tony Blair either believe that the EU is, or will become, a superpower in the 21st century. According to David Miliband, UK Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, however, the EU is not and never will be a superpower according to David Miliband.  [6]  Lacking a unified foreign policy and with an inability to project military power worldwide, the EU lacks the substance of superpower, who by definition have first of all military reach and possess the capacity to arrive quickly anywhere with troops that can impose their governments will.  [7]   Theoretical conceptualization of the EUs role in the international arena offered by scholars proposes three main dimensions: EU as normative power, EU as civilian power and EU is military power. From the first glance of debates and argument suggested one can assume that EU is largely defined as a normative power the force that is able to promote transformation of norms in the international system. Second popular definition in the debates is EU as civilian power the power that has rather civilian means and economic weight in the international arena and may influence the course of development by this means. This way EU as a military power stands on the third place in row of these three definitions, though it should to be recognized that in the debate of recent years this third definition was placed more often in the centre of discussions. Hedley Bull, Franà §ois Duchà ªne, Kenneth Twitchett, Hanns Maull, Karen Smith and Ian Manners are some of prominent authors involved in this deb ate. Although the end of Cold War was defined by some scholars as the end of hard power politics in international arena and the end of militarization of the international relations, the reality was different. Militarization of the international relations did not stop after the Cold War and the conflicts emerged in post-Soviet world did not reduce in number. The US, Russia, China had the same level of military budget and increased involvement in conflict zones worldwide. First and second Gulf wars, War in Yugoslavia and brutal conflicts in Africa demanded the same level of military capabilities from the international community. So was the reality in terms of militarization in Europe. The continent, that became stronger and survived from self-destruction after the WW II thanks to the economic integration and strengthening of its potential as a civilian power, had another additional focus in its development in post-Cold War period. Since TEU and Maastricht the course of development of defens e and security policies became one of the main priorities. After the war in Yugoslavia that proved inability of Europe to respond to crisis in its territory, this dimension of the EUs potential building was further strengthened. And this is the reason why today scholars question the civilian nature of the EU and bring a notion on military power in the person of the EU. From the perspective of theories of international relations the notions of military power are often defined in the realist and neo-realist accounts that were explaining the world of power politics and post WW II realities. However, as Ian Manners mentioned, traditions of just war and humanitarian intervention may alter these theoretical foundations in the post-Cold War international system. The same way, the notions of military power may need amendments to their conventional frames. In the scope of understanding of EUs role in the international arena we would like to refer for the purpose of this paper to the notion of military power that is given by Ian Manners. He argues that normative power should be differentiated from military power by the extent to which conflict conciliation processes are at work, i.e. whether these are through military actions or through changing the structures of conflict. Empirically, these two approaches can be differentiated in terms of whether conflict i s resolved through longer-term conciliation of the parties (i.e. changing the norm of conflict), or through shorter-term intervention in the conflict (i.e. changing the conflict itself).  [8]  Hence, given the nature of emergence and currents of EU military capabilities, we assume that defining the military power of the EU in terms of application of is military forces in the conflict reconciliation processes is one of possible ways of looking at the EUs nature as a possible military power. For developing this understanding it is crucial to see how EUs military capabilities have been developed and to what end they are aimed to be applied. Today the political cooperation in the framework of the EU is reflected in Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), which covers two main fields of cooperation foreign policy and security. However, the history of political union in Europe brought to formation of CFSP is much broader. To understand the development of CFSP one can divide the path of European political cooperation into two stages: 1. Stage of initial Political Union: European Defense Community and European Political Community; 2. Stage of foundation of CFSP and its functional mechanism 1. Stage of initial Political Union: European Defense Community and European Political Community The history of political unification of the community goes back to 50th, when immediately after initiation of the integration process in the framework of ECCS the idea of establishment of European Defense Community (EDC) came to the agenda (1952). In 1952 the Treaty on EDC was concluded. According to number of authors, most interesting part of the EDC was the consent of states to create European army under the control of supranational organization, which meant reducing of sovereignty and independence of the Community members. According to the Treaty EDC were to be subdivided into homogeneous national units with Community status  [9]  . Nevertheless, the role of NATO in this consideration was not excluded and was thought to have key role in providing security and defense in the continent. Yet, the Treaty failed because of the French parliaments position in 1954. At the same time, this Treaty also entitled the Assembly of ECSC to investigate possibilities for European Political Com munity. Draft treaty for the foundation of European Political Community (EPC) was elaborated, with the invitation of Council of Ministers by Consultative Assembly, after the Luxemburg decision of September 10, 1952.  [10]  EPC, designed in the manner of todays European Union, provided the process of integration with quasi-constitutional basis  [11]  . Art.5 of the Draft Treaty embodying the Statute of the European Community with strict language set that existing institutions shall constitute a single legal entity.  [12]  Being a legal entity means possession of personality. This part of the Statute differentiated EPC from the EU which lacks the legal personality today.  [13]  The community to be established would deepen the process of integration and meant that the founding idea has been reached. Yet, formal achievement of the goal failed again, due to resistance of France. Nonetheless, since then the idea of political integration was reconsidered for several times. Although in 1960 reconsideration by Fouchet Plan was unsuccessful and had no vivid results, in 1970 as the consequence of the suggestions made by Davignon Committee the idea was revived in the form of the institutionalized procedure  [14]  . These suggestions promoted intensification of cooperation in one of the key fields of political integration, namely f oreign affairs. This was the beginning of next stage European Political Cooperation (EPC). Formalization of EPC was realized by signature of Single European Act in 1986 in Luxembourg, art. 30 of which obliges states to inform and consult each other on foreign policy matters.  [15]  This was the first serious step towards the formalization of the EPC. In general, the Single European Act made EPC part of the integration, resulting in revival of political integration in very soft manner and including it at later stages into the Treaty of Maastricht under the title of Common Foreign and Security Policy. This way political cooperation was broadened with security issues and hence majority of decisions were possible in this field as well. To sum up this brief account, we can conclude that that the ancestors of CFSP were EDC, EPC and political cooperation. Two draft Treaties, respectively, on EDC and EPC, contained the part of legal history of CFSP. In the field of legalization a breakthrough took place in July 1987 with Single European Act entering into force. One interesting point in this process is that EDC was talking about the army and putting the Treaty itself under the jurisdiction of ECJ. Yet, it could not be done 40 years later by CFSP. Section II CFSP ERRF a new phase towards political union or a path of being a military power? 2. Stage of foundation of CFSP and its functional mechanism Second phase started with making special emphasis on foreign policy development and closer cooperation in this field during the Maastricht Treaty negotiations. Consequently, in the Treaty of European Union (TEU) the CFSP was included as the second pillar of the EU. TEU called for member states to consult on any matter of foreign and security policy of general interest in order to determine a common approach and provided that Member states shall ensure, through the convergence of their actions, that the Union is able to assert its interests and values on the international scene.  [16]  Moreover, the Maastricht Treaty made provisions for using the Western European Union (WEU) as the military arm of the EUs new Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and declared that the CFSP would include the eventual framing of a common defence policy, which might in time lead to a common defense (Article J.4.1).  [17]  However, after the inclusion of CFSP into the TEU for some time there was a period of silence and no actions in practice were taken, though Europe was witnessing conflicts in its territories and its neighborhood. The main message was that the CFSP was established to address the issues of security on the whole continent. Yet, in the period of silence the general goals set in Petersberg in 1992 were not much realized in practice. During the time from 1992 to 1998 the whole process was characterized with inaction. Then the central question of debates suggested that though the name given to it was common security and foreign policy, the issue causing problems was defense. But, in this light there was and still is an existing guarantor of defense in Europe NATO. Article 24 (ex article 11 of TEU) of the consolidated version of TEU addressing defense implications of CFSP mentions that CFSP shall include the progressive framing of defense policy, which might led to common defense.  [18]  . Yet the TEU in another paragraph provides that the policy of the Union in accordance with this Article shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defense policy of certain Member States and shall respect the obligations of certain Member States, which see their common defense realized in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), under the North Atlantic Treaty and be compatible with the common security and defense policy established within that framework.  [19]  This paragraph of the TEU illustrates that the document recognizes and to the extent states priority of NATO over CFSP in providing defense and security in Europe. Nonetheless, it was believed that to defend Europe through CFSP required formation of military forces. At the same time, although (1) humanitarian and rescue tasks; (2) peacekeeping tasks; (3) tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peacemaking were defined as the tasks for military troops by Petersberg Tasks  [20]  , TEU did not have a specific provision on formation of possible armed forces of the Union. Hence, the only instrument was summits of heads of states that could be concluded with decisive and concrete declaration on this matter and so provide steps forward in this direction. In the result of lengthy debates on granting Europe autonomy in the military and defense matters, in 1998 heads of states of Britain and France met in St-Malo. This summit can be outlined as one of those that played a decisive role in drawing the principles of future activities under Title V of TEU. As the result of the British-French Summit, well known St-Malo declaration was adopted. This declaration recognized .the capacity of autonomous action, backed up by credible military forces and stated that military forces should be supported by a strong and competitive European defense industry and technology.  [21]  But this proposed autonomy was rather restricted by the power of NATO. Declaration also provided: Europe can make its voice heard in world affairs, while acting in conformity with our respective obligations in NATO   [22]  This became another statement providing that NATO would have priority in maintaining security and leading defense policy in the continent. On the other hand, circumstantial factors have been significantly influencing the path of development of the EUs own military capabilities. Particularly the war in Yugoslavia became one of the key influencing factors. After the so called humanitarian intervention was realized in Yugoslavia by NATO forces, Europe, facing its own inability to take action for conflict prevention in its territory, started elaborations on possible implementation of Petersberg tasks and particularly principles of St-Malo Declaration. We may assume that in this elaborations NATO was perceived by the EU as a competitor, although its role in providing European security has been central for more then 50 years. Nonetheless, it was definitive that CSFP could not take the place of NATO in the matters on its competence. One of the first steps forward in this path was Cologne Summit in June of 1999. Cologne European Council in its Declaration on strengthening the common European policy on security and defense decided that to this end, the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed up by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and a readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises.  [23]  Moreover, decision of the Summit gave a mandate to European Council to strengthen the CFSP. In its Declaration on strengthening the common European policy on security and defense, the Cologne European Council agreed to transfer from Western European Union (WEU) to the European Union (EU) the responsibility of decision-making and the capacity for action in the area of the Petersberg tasks.  [24]  Underlying the need for military forces, Cologne Declaration also identified main features of future activities as deployability, sustainability, interoperability, fle xibility and mobility  [25]  . Yet two aspects of the overall message of the Declaration were particularly significant for the issue of our discussion. Firstly, it did not necessarily specify military forces as a common army of the Union as it is conventionally understood. Secondly, it determined that the Atlantic Alliance remains as a foundation of the collective defense of its members, thus excluding determination of NATO as a foundation of collective defense of Europe. By this point the EU has shaped its attitude to NATO in terms of using its military capabilities, declaring that communities defense is not provided by NATO, which ensures rather defense of its members. Cologne in the result became one of the key EU council meetings that according to Bono Giovanno was an expression of desire of the EU to develop military and civilian capabilities to project its power regionally and globally, potentially autonomous from NATO  [26]  . Next important shaping Summit was the Helsinki Council of 10-11 December 1999. By its declaration the Helsinki Council agreed that the objective for the Union was to have an autonomous capacity to take decisions, and where NATO as a whole is not engaged to launch EU-led military operations in response to international crisis.  [27]  It introduced Political and Security Committee as an institution. Moreover, it created Military Committee as a supporting unit for Political and Security Council. Also it was in Helsinki that the post of High Representative for CFSP had been introduced. Furthermore, if in St-Malo and Cologne the intention of capable military forces were resolved with final documents, Helsinki meeting drew schema for the military forces including contingent, size and minimum period of sustainability naming it European Rapid Reaction Forces.  [28]  Generally, it was concluded that the formation of forces will need to be accomplished in 2003. This way, Cologne and He lsinki Conclusions laid first stones to the foundation of ESDP and to the formation of European Military Forces. Yet, although commitment on establishment of ERRF and ESDP was clearly made in the results of St-Malo, Cologne and Helsinki, the autonomy of the EU military capability could not be fully established. Already in one of the next meetings in Feira in June 2000 it was again declared that Council should establish a framework of cooperation with NATO. Feira Declaration mentioned that, Council has identified the principles on the basis which consultation and cooperation with NATO should be developed  [29]  . This was certainly connected to the fact that EU members had already military commitments as NATO members with the organization that is supposed to provide European defense. However, in general, the processes outlined above through the row of summits illustrate that EU was determined to take measures for implementation of Petersberg tasks and to form the autonomous military forces to respond to emergency and crisis situations in its territory and neighborhood. So, at later stages in the framework of Capabilities Commitment Conference (CCC) the EU identified details of functional mechanism of its military forces, where the clear picture of ERRF had been drawn. On 20-21 November at CCC in Brussels, states agreed to 100 000 persons and approximately 400 combat aircraft and 100 vessels, though the question was still whether this was a real army of the Union.  [30]   Interestingly enough answer to this question was given in European Council in Nice in December 2000. Declaration of this meeting declared that the European Union will be able to carry out the full range of Petersberg tasks which does not involve the establishment of European army.  [31]  Thus, it was announced that the EU military forces are not an army, but rather an ad hoc forces that are aimed to address concrete missions and respond to crisis situations. Firstly ad hoc forces were established and brought in action in 2003, when NATO forces were replaced by ERRF in Macedonia, which became the first military deployment of EU forces.  [32]   Further development in establishment of EU military forces was formation of Battle Groups based on the adopted headline goals 2010 in 2004. The decision taken created the EU Battle Groups whose duty was to provide rapid reaction in emergency situations within 5 days and to complete missions of at least 30 days with a maximum number of 1,500 men.  [33]  It is argued that the need is defined by Unions willingness to lead more than one crisis management operation simultaneously. In the result Battle Groups became an additional part of the EU military forces, but did not still transfer the EU military capabilities into EUs army. Nonetheless, following the establishment of ERRF and Battle groups the ESDP missions deployed after 2004 became illustration of the EUs ability to accommodate the goals defined in the TEU (under Petersberg Tasks) and take quick actions in response to emergency situation in the high military level. As former EU HR for the Common Security and Foreign Policy Javier Solana underlined in one of his remarks by above-mentioned actions the EU has proved the credibility of its military capability on the ground in Africa, in Congo and Chad and now is proving it everyday in the difficult waters off Somalia.  [34]   Thus, we can assume that, all in all crisis management operations, originally described as one of the areas covered by the Petersberg Tasks, have been identified in the result of dynamic and stable cooperation since 1998 as the area in which the EU military forces found their main occupation and effective usage. Originally described in Amsterdam Treaty in 1997, crisis management mandate was confirmed in the Treaty of Nice (2000), elaborated later in rather wider detail in the European Strategy Security (ESS) in 2003 and, finally, recognized in the Lisbon Treaty (2007).  [35]   Two general conclusions can be drawn based on the above outlined process of formation of the EUs military capabilities. Firstly, formation of EU CFSP and its own military forces (ERRF and Battle Groups) have been successful due to stable and structured cooperation intensified in 1998 that, at the same time, have had influence of certain circumstantial factors triggered by the realities of post-Cold War international system. Secondly, in the process of establishment of EU military capabilities NATO has still been viewed as a strong competitor that made the Union to form its own potential taking always into account the presence of already existing military alliance. This way, the process of formation of EUs military capabilities has been accompanied by certain institutional and political restrictions that have shaped the CFSP and its up-to-date functional mechanism (ESDP). Section III Purpose, unanimity and global dimension of the EU security policies If the above brought paragraphs demonstrate that in the result of stabile and structure cooperation the path towards strengthening political union ended in the direction of establishing own military forces of the Union, thus making the EU stronger in terms of common policy in security and defense dimensions, the question that occurs is whether this development sufficient for defining the EU as a military power. There is no doubt that the emergence of ERRF as a functional mechanism of EU common security and defense policy significantly extended the political competence of the EU as a Union of states. Yet it could not provide the EU with full capacity of being unitary actor in terms of its defense policy and military capacities. Several aspects deserve particular attention in developing further discussion about the role of military capabilities of the EU in the conceptualization of the Union as military power. Firstly, the purpose of established military forces, namely ERRF should be scrutinized in order to define the EUs competence as an actor both internal and external, as in theoretical terms military power is and instrument for internal and external policies. European Security Strategy identifies the general reason for establishment of ERRF and Battle groups. It declares: Our traditional concept of self- defense up to and including the Cold War was based on the threat of invasion. With the new threats, the first line of defense will often be abroad. The new threats are dynamic.  [36]  Furthermore, the field of application of ERRF and Battle Groups was defined in the framework of Petersberg Tasks that include humanitarian and rescue tasks, peacekeeping and combat forces in crisis management. Moreover, if we look at the overview of ESDP missions we can see that objectives of the military forces are formed on a case by case basis depending on an operations and missions abroad. For i nstance, the EU military missions (apart from civilian ESDP missions) have largely peace-enforcement and peacekeeping mandates and are used most of the time as an instrument of quick response to humanitarian emergencies. Majority of missions in Africa for instance aimed at peace building and peace enforcement by use of military capabilities of the EU. Secondly, the EU in becoming power and launching missions depends on member-states willingness and policy priorities. It has been not once mentioned by various authors that CFSP and defense policy has a distinctive feature in comparison to Unions policies in economic and social field that have greater unanimity. It is largely argued that another fact that, for now, impedes the effectiveness of the CFSP is the unwillingness of the me

Examining Perfectly Competitive And Monopoly And Oligopoly

Examining Perfectly Competitive And Monopoly And Oligopoly For the cause of enlarging our knowledge of Economics, we did this assignment. There are three main parts in it. They are Perfectly competitive, Monopoly and Oligopoly, which are really important in Economics. But not simple to learn in Economics study. The questions need us to draw graphs and use calculations for them. These questions would help us have a better understanding of them. Finding: 1.A number of markets are developing on the Internet. One of those market is eBay. Check out eBay at www.eBay.com and explain whether you believe that the eBay Internet auction market is perfectly competitive. Be sure to explain which of the six conditions of a perfectly competitive market are met and how. A: eBay is an online auction Website. Consumers use the Internet to research the goods they desire, then they look for bargains of the same products on eBay. If the products are available, a bid is entered and the winner of the auction eventually pays with her credit card. In addition to regular mail, vendors also use express-mail service to send the purchases to buyers if they choose that option. eBay is different from Amazon.com, another popular e-commerce Website, in that prices on eBay are set by the negotiation between bidders and sellers, whereas Amazon.coms prices are mostly determined by sellers. It is likely to Taobao, which is a well-known shopping website in China. ( http://baike.baidu.com/view/7777.html?wtp=tt, 2010) I believe that the eBay Internet auction market is perfectly competitive. Because it possess these four characteristics: There must be many and sellers in the market, none of whom is large enough to influence price. eBay have kinds of sellers to satisfied distinct demands in goods of consumers. No big firms control small firms. There is freedom of entry to and exit from the industry. Firms must be able to establish themselves in the industry easily and quickly. eBay sellers can entry and exit the business depend on their wishes. Buyers and sellers posses perfect knowledge of prices. They know the market and price well. They gain lots of information about that. All firms produce a homogeneous product. For example, there are many sellers in eBay have the same product, you can choose one base on service or else.  ¼Ã‹â€ Marcouse, 2008) Perfect competition requires that the following six conditions be fulfilled. In such a market, prices would normally move instantaneously to economic equilibrium. Atomicity An atomistic market have small producers and consumers on a given market, so that its actions have no important impact on others. Firms are price takers, which means that the market decide the price that they must choose. Homogeneity Goods and services can substitute perfectly, so all firms sell the same product. There is no difference. Perfect and complete information All firms and consumers understand the prices decide by the whole firms. Equal access All firms have entryed to production technology. If they wanted, they could free to entry or leave. Individual buyers and sellers act independently The market cannot have scope for buyers or sellers get together to have a overall view about the market price. (http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Perfect-competition#Requirements, 2010) Draw marginal revenue ¼Ã…’marginal cost and average total cost curves for a typical perfectly competitive firm and indicate the profit-maximising level of output and total profit or loss for that firm. Is the firm in long-run equilibrium? Why or why not? Figure1 This is a typical perfectly competitive firm firm graph. It is loss. Figure 2 Yes. It is long-run equilibrium. Because there is a point that LRAC line, ATC line, MC line and MR line intersect. The United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates interstate and international communications, including merger activity within industry. Go to the FCC website at www.fcc.gov and search communication companies and answer the following questions: What reasons do consumers and producers have for opposing the merger? What reasons do consumers and producers have for supporting the merger? Does the theory of a monopolist discussed in class and the textbook support the reasons stated in your answers to a and b? A: a). 1.A monopolist charges a higher price and produces less output than a perfectly competitive firm. 2.Consumers have less choice, because one product only be produced bu one firm. 3.High barriers to entry means other firms cannot enter the market. 4.Governments can earn heavily tax through monopolies. 5.Governments can nationalise the monopoly (make it public) and therefore can keep prices too high. 6.Government can decline entry barriers (which is not good for the monopolistic firm). 7.The economy may suffer as less consumer spending may happen because of high prices charged by monopolistic firms. 8.Exploitation of consumer price discrimination 9.Potential for inefficiency complacency over controls on production 10.costs because there is no competition 11.May lack motivation and innovation because there is no competition To sum up, these 11 disadvantages of monopoly. Consumers and producers have for opposing the merger for their own profit. (Marcouse, 2008) b). 1.A monopoly may produce at a lower cost than a competitive industry. This is due to economies of scale, which a monopoly is able to exploit more than a competitive firm, as the monopoly is the sole provider of that good. The ability to set prices at a higher level in order to gain an abnormal profit. However, monopolistic firms are not simply able to charge a price they deem fit for the product, since it is constrained by its demand curve. A higher price will result in a fall in demand, and that may subsequently lead to a fall in revenue (depending on elasticity). The majority of monopolies are belonging to government, so tax will be higher. It can give more money to perfect public goods. Consumers may like price discrimination as it could be in their favour. There can be more control and stability in an industry if a monopoly is present. If it is a natural monopoly, it would be suitable an necessary. Encourages spending on RD which may create better products. Some products and services are not likely to be produced without some guarantee of monopoly protection. Economies of scale can be gained consumer may benefit from a lower cost In conclusion, consumers and producers supporting it, because of these several advantages. c). In general, I think monopolist discussed in class and textbook support the reasons stated in my answers to a. Because from a and b we can know disadvantages of monopoly are greater than advantages. It harms consumers through charging a higher price and producing a lower quantity than would be the case in a perfectly competitive situation.And a monopolist is inefficient because resources are under distributed to the production of its product. ( Smith, 2010 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ° Draw demand, marginal revenue, marginal cost and average total cost curves for a typical monopolistic firm and indicate the profit-maximising level of output and total profit or loss for that firm. Is the firm in long-run equilibrium? Why or why not? How does the profit-maximising position differ from that of a perfectly competitive firm? A: This is a typical monolistic graph. It is a loss. Monopolist can make a profit in the long-run. If the position of a monopolists demand and cost curves give it a profit and nothing disturbs these curves, it can make a profit in long-run. But there is no need to distinguish between the short run and long run for a monopolist. - a monopolist can make a profit in the short run and long run. - it can make a loss in the short run and long run.  ¼Ã‹â€ Smith, 2010 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ° From these two graphs we can see, the Demand and Marginal cost curves of the monopolist are downward sloping. In perfect competition they are horizontal. But the maximizes profits point are the same, when MC=MR.(graphs from Smiths PPT, 2010) Oligopoly The organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an international cartel. Go to its home page at www.opec.org to answer the following questions: What are OPECs objectives of OPFC? How does it meet those objectives? What countries are members of OPEC? What percentage of world oil production comes from these nations? In what way is OPEC a cartel? What significant oil-exporting countries are not members? What has OPEC done to limit the effect of nonmember production on its own pricing decisions? A:a)1.In accordance with its Statute, the mission of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its Member Countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry.OPECs objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry. In a word, OPEC organization is assorting with members oil policy, and unify them. Then decide to use the most suitable way to protect their own or personally benefit. (http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/23.htm, http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm, http://baike.baidu.com/view/24477.htm?fr=ala0_1, 2010) (1)The member countries delegates of OPEC in the OPEC meeting seek unity of oil policy. And contribute to prosper the oil market. These countries aim at the international situation and marketing trends of oil. They have a discussion and analysis to decide the increasing rate of economics. And also control the demand and supply of oil. (http://baike.baidu.com/view/24477.htm?fr=ala0_1, 2010) b) 1. Angola, Algeria, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela and the United Arab Emirates. OPEC nations still have 2/3 of the worlds oil reserves. In April 2009, 33.3% of the worlds oil production, affording them lots of controlling in the global market. The next largest group of producers, members of the OECD and the Post-Soviet states produced only 23.8% and 14.8%, respectively, of the worlds total oil production.Since 2009, OPEC has ordered a production ceiling of 24.84 million barrels per day. At the end of 2008, OPEC had twice reduced the output quota by a total of 4.2 million barrels to 24.8 million barrels per day. In 1996, the members countries have 76.6% of oil, 69.7% in 2007. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEC, http://www.hxen.com/englishnews/world/2010-03-18/103865.html, http://www.qqkqw.com/html/cyclopedia/ziyuanzhanlve/ziyuanxingshi/2010/02/23/152105199.html, 2010) Definition:1Cartel is a group of firms formally agreeing to control the price and output of a product.(Smith ,2010) In some markets, producing firms or producing countries band together, usually to restrict supply; this allows them to raise prices and increase their profits or revenues; the best known cartel is OPEC which restricts the supply of oil onto world world markets. OPEC countries, with less than half of current world output but with most of the worlds oil reserves, manipulate the price of oil by restricting supply. Overall, these evidence proves that OPEC did act as a cartel.(Marcouse, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OPEC#Economics,2010) c). 1. The oil-exporting countries which are not memebers also produced great amount. For example, Russia have the second oil produced in barrels per day, just less than Saudi Arabia, 9,810,000 bbl a day in 2009. United States are the third, 8,514,00 bbl a day in 2008. China is the fourth, which is 3,795,000 per day in 2008. ( https://www.cia.gov/liabrary/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2173rank.html, 2008) 2.OPEC cannot control the international oil market. Draw demand,marginal revenue, marginal cost and average total cost curves for a typical oligopolistic firm and indicate the profit-maximising level of output and total profit or loss for that firm. Explain why prices are stable or sticky in this model. What are the characteristics of oligopoly? This is a typical oligopolistic firm. The graph shows total profit. A: 1.No incentive for price increases; Total Revenue will fall No incentive for price decreases; Total Revenue will fall 2.Mutual interdependence is a main characteristic of oligopoly and it may cause prices to be sticky. The market price incline to remain stable, or rigid, at the kink in the demand curve. 3.To maximize profits, oligopolistic firms operate where MR = MC. Because of the kinked demand curve, there is a range of MC curves which equal MR at the same price: price rigidity.( Smith, 2010) 1.Industry dominated by small number of large firms, but many firms may make up the industry; mutual interdependence among the large firms High barriers to entry Products could be highly differentiated each large firm producing a branded product Non-price competition(e.g 4 Ps) Price stability within the market-kinked demand curve Knowledge of market is not perfect,but there is potential for collusion among firms ( Smith, 2010)

hitlers willing executioners :: essays research papers

Daniel Jonah Goldhagen born in 1959 is an American political scientist most famous for his book, Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, which hypothesizes that all ordinary Germans were actively in favor of the holocaust because of the supposedly unique and virulent "eliminationist" anti-Semitism that was a part of the common consciousness in Germany throughout history. He claims that this special mentality cannot be fully understood by non-Germans and that it was unique to Germany; eliminationist anti-Semitism grew out of medieval attitudes that were religiously based. Later they became more secularly based, but the anti-Semitism remained the same. Goldhagen holds a Ph.D. in Political Science from Harvard University and was a professor at Harvard for many years. He is the winner of Germany’s highly prestigious triennial Democracy Prize and currently a member of Harvard's Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies. In the book Hitler’s Willing Executioners, Daniel Goldhagen uses primary and secondary sources. Goldhagen traces origin & scrutinizes essence of anti-Semitism from its origins over 1,000 years ago, manifest in non-Jewish Christian civilization at beginning of the Crusades (Jews characterized as non-Christian Christ killers); throughout the Middle Ages into early modern Europe. He gives a clear insight of how Jews were tortured describing every gruesome detail. Though Goldhagen utilizes many original sources, some sources seem to come from his head. For example: The author titled the book Hitler’s â€Å"Willing† Executioners assuming that all Nazi’s were enthusiastic to kill Jews. It seems as though he carefully gathered all the information he could find about the Holocaust to make this piece of art into such a great novel. He allows the reader to comprehend how he fells personally about different situations mentioned throughout the book. Though he states his opinion on several occurrences throughout the book, he backs them up with credible facts. Hitler’s Willing Executioners is well written, easy to read and clearly defined. The issue is not the fact that the Germans were anti-Semitic, but rather that any human or group of humans could turn against a group of people so vehemently and so horribly. The vocabulary is somewhat easy to comprehend. Goldhagen's thesis, which he rides awfully hard, is that ordinary Germans were quite likely to be anti-Semitic because anti-Semitism, abetted by the Nazi high command, so thoroughly pervaded German culture. Goldhagen's account is centered on events in World War II and does not, foreground his thesis.

Monica Lewinsky: Women in Society, Body Image and Feminism :: Essays Papers

Monica Lewinsky: Women in Society, Body Image and Feminism In the current post-impeachment proceedings the question becomes whom it has affected most and what it will mean to them and their agenda. Obvious groups that will suffer most from the impeachment that are subject to the after effects are the Republican Party and American politics in general. As far as individuals are concerned, Monica Lewinsky has a good deal of post-scandal baggage. But what about those who will experience the effects of Monica and what she represents as a woman in American society? The movement which has suffered the most in the standpoint of social and political agenda are the Feminists. Using Feminist criticism to analyze the discourse surrounding and as well as by the speaker, Monica, I aim to reveal how women's place in society led by the Feminist's has changed due the sex scandal and where it maybe headed next. In looking at this aspect of the scandal it becomes crucial not just to analyze the discourse of Feminists and Monica but to find it in a larger scheme of a society which shapes many of the gender roles and pressures put on individuals to look and act in certain ways. There is an evident change in the role of women in American society that has occurred as a result of the scandal which is important not just to the Feminists and their supporters but to any female who enters the public arena and is faced with pressures and expectations put on them as a result of their gender. As a leading special interest group, Feminists, who are politically active concerning gender roles in society, have been at the forefront of the Paula Jones case and the Lewinksy-Clinton scandal. What comes at odds with the Feminist stance in politics is a womanizing Democratic President that they support and his opportunizing and provocative young mistress. It was something the Feminists were neither prepared for nor easily responded to when given the option of a liberal President with sexual issues or the conservative, Republican moralists taking charge. We deplore his misconduct but we also understand the hypocrisy of his opponents. We Have years of progress at stake if the President is hounded out of office. But worse yet, We wish the ushering into power of a puritanical or fundamentaliststs, sex police which Speaks of freedom but allows government to destroy the right of privacy.

White Treatment of Blacks in Notes of a Native Son Essay -- James Bald

The White Beginning To Black Paranoia Some people regard James Baldwin as one of the best essayists of all time because of his ability to enmesh argument within narrative. Baldwin aims to tell a story, yet every so often throughout ?Notes of a Native Son,? he takes a moment to analyze what has happened. As the essay ebbs and flows from narrative into argument, the reader hardly knows the tide has changed. During this change, Baldwin turns to analyzing what has just happened, allowing the reader to actively interpret his analysis as a central theme throughout the work. Throughout the essay, Baldwin?s main narrative dealt with how blacks are treated by white people. When analyzing this narrative, it can be seen that white minds caused black madness, because of how the blacks were treated. Baldwin spends a majority of ?Notes? telling about his father?s life. Baldwin?s father eventually died from an illness of the mind, which plagued him for the last years of his life. His father was the first of a generation of free men. He kept to himself most of the time, had very dark skin, and was a preacher. He always had good intentions, but somehow those intentions never turned out well. As a result of his life, he had a great paranoia, which kept him from getting close to his children, and fueled his angry temper. James Baldwin noticed this paranoia as a young child. Part of the essay talks of when Baldwin was a young boy. One of his teachers, who happened to be white, was interested in a play he wrote, and wanted to take him to see one at the theater. They went to the play and later when Baldwin?s father was laid off his job, this woman became more and more important to helping the family. Even th... ...Baldwin reflects saying, ?now that my father was irrecoverable, I wished that he had been beside me so that I could have searched his face for the answers which only the future would give me now? (84). Baldwin wishes his father was there so he could look into his own future, and see how to cure his bitter madness. In ?Notes,? the narrative of his father?s life, Baldwin realizes, may eventually become the continuation of his own life, unless he learns from what has happened to his father. This essay tells the story of the latter half of his father?s life, and the first half of his own. These two half-lives can be spliced together to represent an African American?s life anywhere during this time period. Works Cited Baldwin, James. ?Notes of a Native Son.? 1955. James Baldwin: Collected Essays. Ed. Toni Morrison. New York: Library of America, 1998. 63-84.

Depression and Women

Women and Depression Christina Eddy October 2012 Women and Depression WOMEN AND DEPRESSION Introduction A. What is causing more women to be depressed then men? B. Depression is one of the leading causes of death in women today. 2. Depression in women is caused by many different reasons a. Hormonal changes due to pre menopause and menopausal conditions. b. Women of all ages seem to suffer from depression at one time or another. c. Depression can put a strain on many areas of a women’s life. 3.What can society do to help women deal with depression? a. Working with these women to help them learn how to over come depression b. Treatment through counseling and possible medication C. more informative information on how to handle depression through advertisements 3. Conclusion Society need to take a better closer look at what is causing this depression in women. If is very important the we treat both the mental and emotional issues that women deal with when diagnosed with depressionW omen and Depression There are many symptoms related to depression, these symptoms could be as simple as difficulties concentrating, or may be presented as an over-whelming of feelings of worthlessness and even becoming delusions. Women are thought to be more sensitive than men; this could lead to feeling over-whelmed which in turn could lead to suicide. Some emotions such as: not feeling pretty enough or not being skinny enough tend to be magnified. Studies have shown that 12% of U.S women may suffer from depression while approximately only 6% of men may be diagnosed as depressed. . Cyranowski, J. M. ,&Frank. (2006). Targeting populations of Women for Prevention and Treatment of Depression. In C. M. Mazure,G. Keita (Eds. ) Understanding depression in women. Mental health workers have stated that it’s psychological and that woman should be able to recognize how they are feelings and get help. But the question still remains, what is causing all these women to be depressed. It m ight be due to heredity, sexual abuse.There are those that are being harassed or discriminated against. There are doctors who believe that much of the depression in women is hormonal and could be brought on through their menstrual cycle or menopause. Psychologists believe that this depression has roots that can be passed through generations, therefore when something tragic accurse it can cause the depression to resurface. Some scientists believe that the stress factors lean more towards heredity; depression may be a gene that is passed down through generations.Through investigations it was found that the women who did not have a family history of depression, but did experience stressful events raised their chances of becoming depressed. There was about a 6% chance compared to those whose family had a history of depression, even this only raised their chances to 14%. Scientists have wondered if the gondola steroids estrogen and progesterone produced while a woman is menstruating migh t be putting women at a higher risk of becoming depressed, therefore showing that some girls may become depressed after puberty when they began to menstruate and their hormones start to fluctuate.Recent studies have shown that estrogen might play an active part in depression; this could be due to the fact that estrogen triggers body stress responses. Doctors know that the adrenalin glands are controlled by the pituitary gland in the brain which produces higher levels of a hormone called cortisol; this in turn increases the bodies metabolic and immune systems, stress then increases cortisol levels. These cortisol levels gradually will return to normal when the stress has passed.Although some evidence has shown that structured behavioral marital and family therapies are effective in treatment of depression (Holon, Summit2000). With the right combinations of therapy and drugs depression can be controlled. It’s has been proven in market research that approximately 30% to 35% of i ndividuals who have tried anti-depressant drugs felt no sense of improvement while taking the drugs. Keller, Gelenberge, &Hirschfeld, 1998; Keller et al. , 2000)Depressed women have been known to have more marital issues, this can sometimes lead to divorce, with this factor already in place depressed women are more likely to get involved with, and marry men with psychiatric disorders. (Hammen,Rudolph,Weiser,Roa,& Burge,1999). Although this is one factor in the cycle of women’s depression there is also another disorder called Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) this disorder is mostly found in women of child rearing ages, however, this disorder is now being found more often in younger patients.With this newfound information doctors are trying to figure out what effects if any (MDD) has on the children of depressed women. (Collaborative Group, 1992) There has been some research done stating that depression begins in early childhood. This could show us that it may also continue into adulthood, evidence has shown that it may lead to morbidity a higher risk of suicide. Therefore, children of depressed mothers when compared to mothers who do not suffer from depression have greater chance of inheriting a major depressive disorder.References Cyranowski, J. M. , &Frank. (2006). Targeting populations of Women for Prevention and Treatment of Depression. In C. M. Mazure, G. Keita (Eds. ) Understanding depression in women: References: (Psychological Applying empirical research to practice and policy (pp71-112) American Association. ) Doi: 10. 1037/11434-003 (Cross National Collaborative Group, 1992) (Holon, Summit2000) (Keller, Gelenberge, &Hirschfeld, 1998; Keller et al. , 2000) (Hammen,Rudolph,Weiser,Roa,& Burge,1999).

The Vampire Diaries: The Awakening Chapter Four

By the time Elena reached her locker, the numbness was wearing off and the lump in her throat was trying to dissolve into tears. But she wouldn't cry at school, she told herself, shewouldn't . After closing her locker, she made for the main exit. For the second day in a row, she was coming home from school right after the last bell, and alone. Aunt Judith wouldn't be able to cope. But when Elena reached her house, Aunt Judith's car was not in the driveway; she and Margaret must have gone out to the market. The house was still and peaceful as Elena let herself in. She was glad for that stillness; she wanted to be alone right now. But, on the other hand, she didn't exactly know what to do with herself. Now that she finallycould cry, she found that tears wouldn't come. She let her backpack sag to the floor in the front hall and walked slowly into the living room. It was a handsome, impressive room, the only part of the house besides Elena's bedroom that belonged to the original structure. That first house had been built before 1861, and had been almost completely burned in the Civil War. All that could be saved was this room, with its elaborate fireplace framed by scrolled molding, and the big bedroom above. Elena's father's greatgrandfather had built a new house, and Gilberts had lived in it ever since. Elena turned to look out of one of the ceiling-to-floor windows. The glass was so old that it was thick and wavery, and everything outside was distorted, looking slightly tipsy. She remembered the first time her father had showed her that wavery old glass, when she had been younger than Margaret was now. The fullness in her throat was back, but still no tears would come. Everything inside her was contradictory. She didn't want company, and yet she was achingly lonely. Shedid want to think, but now that she was trying to, her thoughts eluded her like mice running from a white owl. White owl†¦ hunting bird†¦ flesh eater†¦ crow, she thought. â€Å"Biggest crow I've ever seen,† Matt had said. Her eyes stung again. Poor Matt. She'd hurt him, but he'd been so nice about it. He'd even been nice to Stefan. Stefan . Her heart thudded once, hard, squeezing two hot tears out of her eyes. There, she was crying at last. She was crying with anger and humiliation and frustration-and what else? What had she really lost today? What did she really feel for this stranger, this Stefan Salvatore? He was a challenge, yes, and that made him different, interesting. Stefan was exotic†¦ exciting. Funny, that was what guys had sometimes told Elena she was. And later she heard from them, or from their friends or sisters, how nervous they were before going out with her, how their palms got sweaty and their stomachs were full of butterflies. Elena had always found such stories amusing. No boy she'd ever met in her life had made her nervous. But when she'd spoken to Stefan today, her pulse had been racing, her knees weak. Her palms had been wet. And there hadn't been butterflies in her stomach-there had been bats. She was interested in the guy because he made her feel nervous? Not a very good reason, Elena, she told herself. In fact, a very bad reason. But there was also that mouth. That sculpted mouth that made her knees weak with something entirely different than nervousness. And that night-dark hair-her fingers itched to weave themselves into its softness. That lithe, flat-muscled body, those long legs†¦ and thatvoice . It was his voice that had decided her yesterday, making her absolutely determined to have him. His voice had been cool and disdainful when talking to Mr. Tanner, but strangely compelling for all that. She wondered if it could turn night-dark as well, and how it would sound saying her name, whispering her name†¦ â€Å"Elena!† Elena jumped, her reverie shattered. But it wasn't Stefan Salvatore calling her, it was Aunt Judith rattling the front door open. â€Å"Elena? Elena!† And that was Margaret, her voice shrill and piping. â€Å"Are you home?† Misery welled up in Elena again, and she glanced around the kitchen. She couldn't face her aunt's worried questions or Margaret's innocent cheerfulness right now. Not with her eyelashes wet and new tears threatening any minute. She made a lightning decision and quietly slipped out the back door as the front door banged shut. Once off the back porch and into the yard, she hesitated. She didn't want to run into anyone she knew. But where could she go to be alone? The answer came almost instantly. Of course. She'd go see Mom and Dad. It was a fairly long walk, almost to the edge of town, but over the last three years it had become familiar to Elena. She crossed over Wickery Bridge and climbed up the hill, past the ruined church, then down into the little valley below. This part of the cemetery was well-kept; it was the old section that was allowed to run slightly wild. Here, the grass was neatly trimmed, and bouquets of flowers made splashes of bright color. Elena sat down by the big marble headstone with â€Å"Gilbert† carved into the front. â€Å"Hi, Mom. Hi, Dad,† she whispered. She leaned over to place a purple impatiens blossom she'd picked along the way in front of the marker. Then she curled her legs under her and just sat. She'd come here often after the accident. Margaret had been only one at the time of the car crash; she didn't really remember them. But Elena did. Now she let her mind leaf back through memories, and the lump in her throat swelled, and the tears came easier. She missed them so much, still. Mother, so young and beautiful, and Father, with a smile that crinkled up his eyes. She was lucky to have Aunt Judith, of course. It wasn't every aunt who would quit her job and move back into a little town to take care of two orphaned nieces. And Robert, Aunt Judith's fianc ¦, was more like a stepfather to Margaret than an uncle-to-be by marriage. But Elena remembered her parents. Sometimes, right after the funeral, she had come out here to rage at them, angry with them for being so stupid as to get themselves killed. That was when she hadn't known Aunt Judith very well, and had felt there was nowhere on earth she belonged anymore. Where did she belong now? she wondered. The easy answer was, here, in Fell's Church, where she'd lived all her life. But lately the easy answer seemed wrong. Lately she felt there must be something else out there for her, some place she would recognize at once and call home. A shadow fell over her, and she looked up, startled. For an instant, the two figures standing over her were alien, unfamiliar, vaguely menacing. She stared, frozen. â€Å"Elena,† said the smaller figure fussily, hands on hips, â€Å"sometimes I worry about you, I really do.† Elena blinked and then laughed shortly. It was Bonnie and Meredith. â€Å"What does a person have to do to get a little privacy around here?† she said as they sat down. â€Å"Tell us to go away,† suggested Meredith, but Elena just shrugged. Meredith and Bonnie had often come out here to find her in the months after the accident. Suddenly, she felt glad about that, and grateful to them both. If nowhere else, she belonged with the friends who cared about her. She didn't mind if they knew she had been crying, and she accepted the crumpled tissue Bonnie offered her and wiped her eyes. The three of them sat together in silence for a little while, watching the wind ruffle the stand of oak trees at the edge of the cemetery. â€Å"I'm sorry about what happened,† Bonnie said at last, in a soft voice. â€Å"That was really terrible.† â€Å"And your middle name is ‘Tact,' † said Meredith. â€Å"It couldn't have been that bad, Elena.† â€Å"You weren't there.† Elena felt herself go hot all over again at the memory. â€Å"Itwas terrible. But I don't care anymore,† she added flatly, defiantly. â€Å"I'm finished with him. I don't want him anyway.† â€Å"Elena!† â€Å"I don't, Bonnie. He obviously thinks he's too good for-for Americans. So he can just take those designer sunglasses and†¦Ã¢â‚¬  There were snorts of laughter from the other girls. Elena wiped her nose and shook her head. â€Å"So,† she said to Bonnie, determinedly changing the subject, â€Å"at least Tanner seemed in a better mood today.† Bonnie looked martyred. â€Å"Do you know that he made me sign up to be the very first one to give my oral report? I don't care, though; I'm going to do mine on the druids, and-† â€Å"On the what?† â€Å"Droo-ids. The weird old guys who built Stonehenge and did magic and stuff in ancient England. I'm descended from them, and that's why I'm psychic.† Meredith snorted, but Elena frowned at the blade of grass she was twirling between her fingers. â€Å"Bonnie, did you really see something yesterday in my palm?† she asked abruptly. Bonnie hesitated. â€Å"I don't know,† she said at last. â€Å"I-Ithought I did then. But sometimes my imagination runs away with me.† â€Å"She knew you were here,† said Meredith unexpectedly. â€Å"I thought of looking at the coffee shop, but Bonnie said, ‘She's at the cemetery.' † â€Å"Did I?† Bonnie looked faintly surprised but impressed. â€Å"Well, there you see. My grandmother in Edinburgh has the second sight and so do I. It always skips a generation.† â€Å"And you're descended from the druids,† Meredith said solemnly. â€Å"Well, it's true! In Scotland they keep up the old traditions. You wouldn't believe some of the things my grandmother does. She has a way to find out who you're going to marry and when you're going to die. She told me I'm going to die early.† â€Å"Bonnie!† â€Å"She did. I'm going to be young and beautiful in my coffin. Don't you think that's romantic?† â€Å"No, I don't. I think it's disgusting,† said Elena. The shadows were getting longer, and the wind had a chill to it now. â€Å"So who are you going to marry, Bonnie?† Meredith put in deftly. â€Å"I don't know. My grandmother told me the ritual for finding out, but I never tried it. Of course†-Bonnie struck a sophisticated pose-â€Å"he has to be outrageously rich and totally gorgeous. Like our mysterious dark stranger, for example. Particularly if nobody else wants him.† She cast a wicked glance at Elena. Elena refused the bait. â€Å"What about Tyler Smallwood?† she murmured innocently. â€Å"His father's certainly rich enough.† â€Å"And he's not bad-looking,† agreed Meredith solemnly. â€Å"That is, of course, if you're an animal lover. All those big white teeth.† The girls looked at each other and then simultaneously burst into laughter. Bonnie threw a handful of grass at Meredith, who brushed it off and threw a dandelion back at her. Somewhere in the middle of it, Elena realized that she was going to be all right. She was herself again, not lost, not a stranger, but Elena Gilbert, the queen of Robert E. Lee. She pulled the apricot ribbon out of her hair and shook the hair free about her face. â€Å"I've decided what to domy oral report on,† she said, watching with narrow eyes as Bonnie finger-combed grass out of her curls. â€Å"What?† said Meredith. Elena tilted her chin up to gaze at the red and purple sky above the hill. She took a thoughtful breath and let the suspense build for a moment. Then she said coolly, â€Å"The Italian Renaissance.† Bonnie and Meredith stared at her, then looked at each other and burst into whoops of laughter again. â€Å"Aha,† said Meredith when they recovered. â€Å"So the tiger returneth.† Elena gave her a feral grin. Her shaken confidence had returned to her. And though she didn't understand it herself, she knew one thing: she wasn't going to let Stefan Salvatore get away alive. â€Å"All right,† she said briskly. â€Å"Now, listen, you two. Nobody else can know about this, or I'll be the laughingstock of the school. And Caroline would just love any excuse to make me look ridiculous. But I do still want him, and I'm going to have him. I don't know how yet, but I am. Until I come up with a plan, though, we're going to give him the cold shoulder.† â€Å"Oh,we are?† â€Å"Yes,we are. You can't have him, Bonnie; he's mine. And I have to be able to trust you completely.† â€Å"Wait a minute,† said Meredith, a glint in her eye. She unclasped the cloisonne pin from her blouse, then, holding up her thumb, made a quick jab. â€Å"Bonnie, give me your hand.† â€Å"Why?† said Bonnie, eyeing the pin suspiciously. â€Å"Because I want to marry you. Why do you think, idiot?† â€Å"But-but-Oh, all right. Ow!† â€Å"Now you, Elena.† Meredith pricked Elena's thumb efficiently, and then squeezed it to get a drop of blood. â€Å"Now,† she continued, looking at the other two with sparkling dark eyes, â€Å"we all press our thumbs together and swear. Especially you, Bonnie. Swear to keep this secret and to do whatever Elena asks in relation to Stefan.† â€Å"Look, swearing with blood is dangerous,† Bonnie protested seriously. â€Å"It means you have to stick to your oath no matter what happens, no matterwhat , Meredith.† â€Å"I know,† said Meredith grimly. â€Å"That's why I'm telling you to do it. I remember what happened with Michael Martin.† Bonnie made a face. â€Å"That was years ago, and we broke up right away anyway and-Oh, all right. I'll swear.† Closing her eyes, she said, â€Å"I swear to keep this a secret and to do anything Elena asks about Stefan.† Meredith repeated the oath. And Elena, staring at the pale shadows of their thumbs joined together in the gathering dusk, took a long breath and said softly, â€Å"And I swear not to rest until he belongs to me.† A gust of cold wind blew through the cemetery, fanning the girls' hair out and sending dry leaves fluttering on the ground. Bonnie gasped and pulled back, and they all looked around, then giggled nervously. â€Å"It's dark,† said Elena, surprised. â€Å"We'd better get started home,† Meredith said, refastening her pin as she stood up. Bonnie stood, too, putting the tip of her thumb into her mouth. â€Å"Good-bye,† said Elena softly, facing the headstone. The purple blossom was a blur on the ground. She picked up the apricot ribbon that lay next to it, turned, and nodded to Bonnie and Meredith. â€Å"Let's go.† Silently, they headed up the hill toward the ruined church. The oath sworn in blood had given them all a solemn feeling, and as they passed the ruined church Bonnie shivered. With the sun down, the temperature had dropped abruptly, and the wind was rising. Each gust sent whispers through the grass and made the ancient oak trees rattle their dangling leaves. â€Å"I'm freezing,† Elena said, pausing for a moment by the black hole that had once been the church door and looking down at the landscape below. The moon had not yet risen, and she could just make out the old graveyard and Wickery Bridge beyond it. The old graveyard dated from Civil War days, and many of the headstones bore the names of soldiers. It had a wild look to it; brambles and tall weeds grew on the graves, and ivy vines swarmed over crumbling granite. Elena had never liked it. â€Å"It looks different, doesn't it? In the dark, I mean,† she said unsteadily. She didn't know how to say what she really meant, that it was not a place for the living. â€Å"We could go the long way,† said Meredith. â€Å"But that would mean another twenty minutes of walking.† â€Å"I don't mind going this way,† said Bonnie, swallowing hard. â€Å"I always said I wanted to be buried down there in the old one.† â€Å"Will you stop talking about being buried!† Elena snapped, and she started down the hill. But the farther down the narrow path she got, the more uncomfortable she felt. She slowed until Bonnie and Meredith caught up with her. As they neared the first headstone, her heart began beating fast. She tried to ignore it, but her whole skin was tingling with awareness and the fine hairs on her arms were standing up. Between the gusts of wind, every sound seemed horribly magnified; the crunching of their feet on the leaf-strewn path was deafening. The ruined church was a black silhouette behind them now. The narrow path led between the lichen-encrusted headstones, many of which stood taller than Meredith. Big enough for something to hide behind, thought Elena uneasily. Some of the tombstones themselves were unnerving, like the one with the cherub that looked like a real baby, except that its head had fallen off and had been carefully placed by its body. The wide granite eyes of the head were blank. Elena couldn't look away from it, and her heart began to pound. â€Å"Why are we stopping?† said Meredith. â€Å"I just†¦ I'm sorry,† Elena murmured, but when she forced herself to turn she immediately stiffened. â€Å"Bonnie?† she said. â€Å"Bonnie, what's wrong?† Bonnie was staring straight out into the graveyard, her lips parted, her eyes as wide and blank as the stone cherub's. Fear washed through Elena's stomach. â€Å"Bonnie, stop it. Stop it! It's not funny.† Bonnie made no reply. â€Å"Bonnie!† said Meredith. She and Elena looked at each other, and suddenly Elena knew she had to get away. She whirled to start down the path, but a strange voice spoke behind her, and she jerked around. â€Å"Elena,† the voice said. It wasn't Bonnie's voice, but it came from Bonnie's mouth. Pale in the darkness, Bonnie was still staring out into the graveyard. There was no expression on her face at all. â€Å"Elena,† the voice said again, and added, as Bonnie's head turned toward her, â€Å"there's someone waiting out there for you.† Elena never quite knew what happened in the next few minutes. Something seemed to move out among the dark humped shapes of the headstones, shifting and rising between them. Elena screamed and Meredith cried out, and then they were both running, and Bonnie was running with them, screaming, too. Elena pounded down the narrow path, stumbling on rocks and clumps of grass root. Bonnie was sobbing for breath behind her, and Meredith, calm and cynical Meredith, was panting wildly. There was a sudden thrashing and a shriek in an oak tree above them, and Elena found that she could run faster. â€Å"There's something behind us,† cried Bonnie shrilly. â€Å"Oh, God, what's happening?† â€Å"Get to the bridge,† gasped Elena through the fire in her lungs. She didn't know why, but she felt they had to make it there. â€Å"Don't stop, Bonnie! Don't look behind you!† She grabbed the other girl's sleeve and pulled her around. â€Å"I can't make it,† Bonnie sobbed, clutching her side, her pace faltering. â€Å"Yes, you can,† snarled Elena, grabbing Bonnie's sleeve again and forcing her to keep moving. â€Å"Come on.Come on!† She saw the silver gleam of water before them. And there was the clearing between the oak trees, and the bridge just beyond. Elena's legs were wobbling and her breath was whistling in her throat, but she wouldn't let herself lag behind. Now she could see the wooden planks of the footbridge. The bridge was twenty feet away from them, ten feet away, five. â€Å"We made it,† panted Meredith, feet thundering on the wood. â€Å"Don't stop! Get to the other side!† The bridge creaked as they ran staggering across it, their steps echoing across the water. When she jumped onto packed dirt on the far shore, Elena let go of Bonnie's sleeve at last, and allowed her legs to stumble to a halt. Meredith was bent over, hands on thighs, deep-breathing. Bonnie was crying. â€Å"What was it? Oh, what was it?† she said. â€Å"Is it still coming?† â€Å"I thought you were the expert,† Meredith said unsteadily. â€Å"For God's sake, Elena, let's get out of here.† â€Å"No, it's all right now,† Elena whispered. There were tears in her own eyes and she was shaking all over, but the hot breath at the back of her neck had gone. The river stretched between her and it, the waters a dark tumult. â€Å"It can't follow us here,† she said. Meredith stared at her, then at the other shore with its clustered oak trees, then at Bonnie. She wet her lips and laughed shortly. â€Å"Sure. It can't follow us. But let's go home anyway, all right? Unless you feel like spending the night out here.† Some unnameable feeling shuddered through Elena. â€Å"Not tonight, thanks,† she said. She put an arm around Bonnie, who was still sniffling. â€Å"It's okay, Bonnie. We're safe now. Come on.† Meredith was looking across the river again. â€Å"You know, I don't see a thing back there,† she said, her voice calmer. â€Å"Maybe there wasn't anything behind us at all; maybe we just panicked and scared ourselves. With a little help from the druid priestess here.† Elena said nothing as they started walking, keeping very close together on the dirt path. But she wondered. She wondered very much.